TECHNICAL ARTICLES
Practical guide to air-source and ground-source heat pumps for homeowners’ associations
The guide aims to explain the benefits of air-source and ground-source heat pumps in residential buildings and answer questions about their integration into existing properties. It covers the new multipliers for heat pumps under Spain’s Energy Savings Certificate (CAE) scheme…
Cyber Resilience Act (CRA) Application to the HVAC sector
The Regulation (EU) 2024/2847, known as the Cyber Resilience Act or CRA, establishes horizontal cybersecurity requirements for products with digital elements marketed in the European Union. Its aim is to ensure that these products reach the market…
Directive (EU) 2026/2450: Sixth Revision of the Carcinogens Directive
Directive (EU) 2026/2450 amends Directive 2004/37/EC and introduces new binding exposure limits for cobalt and its inorganic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, isoprene and 1,4-dioxane…
Prevention of exposure in occupational environments
The publication of Royal Decrees 846/2026 and 847/2026, both dated 21 October and published in the Official State Gazette (BOE) on 23 October, updates two central areas of occupational risk prevention: exposure to carcinogenic…
Timeline of Order INT/1068/2026 and the RSIF | Refrigeration safety · Facility self-protection
Order INT/1068/2026 results from the evolution of Spanish civil protection and self-protection legislation. Its direct predecessor is Royal Decree 393/2007, while its immediate legal basis is Royal Decree 524/2023…
UNE-EN 50600-1:2026: the new technical reference for data centre design
UNE-EN 50600-1:2026 is the Spanish standard that ratifies the European standard EN 50600-1:2026, entitled “Information technology. Data centre facilities and infrastructures. Part 1: General concepts”…
PREE Sanitario: €168 million for energy refurbishment, pending regional calls
The programme has already completed its national phase. The 168 million euros have been distributed among the autonomous communities, which will publish their own calls for applications and manage requests…
Order INT/1068/2026 and RSIF: Refrigeration safety Facility self-protection
Order INT/1068/2026, of 7 October, publishes the Council of Ministers agreement approving the Basic Civil Protection Planning Guideline on self-protection for centres, facilities and premises engaged in activities…
UNE 100.012:2026 Hygienic cleaning of air-conditioning systems
On 23 September 2026, AENOR published the UNE 100012:2026 standard on the hygienic cleaning of air-conditioning systems…
UNE 100030:2026 published: prevention and control of Legionella
UNE 100030:2026 was published on 10 September 2026 to address the prevention and control of Legionella growth and spread in installations. This edition replaces the 2023 standard…
Data centre decree Unfair to Spain? (Part 04, final) – Loss of free-cooling availability and humidity
Free cooling uses outdoor air conditions to reject heat from IT equipment with little or no mechanical compression. Its availability depends on outdoor temperature, humidity and heat rejection technology…
Data centre decree Unfair to Spain? (Part 03) – Persistent heat episodes
The analysis shows an absolute climate disadvantage for Spain—particularly inland Andalusia—compared with the European average when the benchmark is sustained outdoor maxima above 35 °C…
Data centre decree Unfair to Spain? (Part 02) – Climate severity
Climate severity describes the effort that outdoor conditions impose on a facility to maintain its indoor design conditions. Spain’s cooling climate severity is approximately 2.8 times the EU-27 average and more than 11 times Germany’s…
Data centre decree Unfair to Spain? (Part 01)
The European Commission report acknowledges that local climate conditions matter: colder regions benefit from free cooling, while warmer ones need more energy for cooling…
RSIF beyond the consolidated text – Refrigeration safety and F-Gas obligations: what the consolidated text does not show
In my training sessions on regulations, I always stress the need to use consolidated versions, which bring together the amendments to a regulation. With the RSIF, however, the consolidated text alone no longer provides…
Thermal Control as a Key Factor in Improving the Efficiency of Biogas and Biomethane Plants
In just a few years, biomethane has moved from being a promising alternative to becoming an industrial reality in Spain. Initiatives such as REPowerEU and the targets set out in the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan (PNIEC) are driving its development…
FGas: Looking Ahead to 2027
There is one point worth putting on the table from the outset: F-Gas does not literally amend the RITE or the RSIF, but it increasingly constrains them. And in practice, this is almost more important than a formal amendment…
Seasonal performance values – SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio) in cooling mode and SCOP (Seasonal Coefficient of Performance) in heating mode – provide a more realistic indication of equipment performance because they account for different operating and part-load conditions, as well as the operating hours associated with each reference climate condition, rather than considering only a single …
Heat Pump Statistics
Current regulations, as part of their efforts to promote renewable energy, require the different renewable energy sources to be classified according to their origin in order to assess their relevance. Regulation (EU) 2024/573 of 7 February 2024 on fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases) defines a heat pump as “a piece of …
Comfort in Hospital HVAC Installations: Much More Than Temperature
Environmental comfort in hospital buildings is one of the most complex and demanding aspects of HVAC engineering. Unlike other tertiary-sector buildings, where comfort is usually assessed mainly by measuring variables such as temperature, relative humidity, and occupants’ perception, hospitals must simultaneously address requirements related to wellbeing, clinical safety, infection control, and the energy and operational efficiency of the facility…
Aerothermal Energy and Heat Pumps: the Efficient Solution for Replacing Fossil-Fuel Boilers
Aerothermal energy is a technology that is transforming the way we condition buildings and produce domestic hot water. It is efficient, sustainable, and increasingly used in hotels, hospitals, educational facilities, sports centres, nursing homes, student residences, industrial facilities, and residential communities…
Heat recovery in heat pumps for domestic hot water (DHW) production
In light of the planned phase-out of fossil-fuel boilers set out in the new European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD 2024), KEYTER is strengthening its commitment to heat pumps as a cornerstone of sustainable HVAC…
Understanding Seasonal Efficiency in Heat Pumps: SEER and SCOP
In the evaluation of heat pump performance, it is crucial to move beyond instantaneous measurements to understand how a unit operates over an entire season. While metrics like the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)…
EER and COP: The difference every HVAC professional should know
In the drive toward industrial decarbonization and efficient HVAC, heat pumps stand out as a key technology. However, to unlock their full potential, it’s essential to understand how their performance is measured accurately.…
2025 Regulatory and Normative Changes in the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Sector
Eco-Design Regulation, F-Gas, RSIF, EPBD, RITE… The HVAC&R sector is at a pivotal moment, marked by updates to several key regulatory texts that will shape its future. This article analyzes the anticipated changes to these regulations over the course of this year…
New Catalog of Standardized Sheets for the Caes System and the KEYTER Product Proposal
On July 18, the Official State Gazette published, through a ministerial resolution, the update of Annex I of Order TED/845/2023, of July 18, which…
Estimation Of Maximum Allowable Load For Refrigeration Systems
Although the F-Gas regulation may seem highly technical and complex, at KEYTER, we strive to simplify it for our clients. We offer a 360º service where our specialized technical teams analyze each project individually…
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